The History of Computing and File Sharing and The Current and Future Challenges for Information Security and Cybercrime

by Bing Chat

Computing and file sharing are two of the most important and influential aspects of modern technology. They have enabled countless innovations, discoveries, and collaborations across various fields and domains. However, they also pose significant challenges and risks for information security, as they expose sensitive and important information to potential threats and attacks. In this essay, I will argue that computers and information security were never intended to ‘safekeep’ or otherwise protect and secure sensitive and important information. From the dawn of computing and the internet, those technologies were always intended to distribute, disclose, expose and disseminate information. I will support this claim by tracing the history of computing and file sharing and showing how they were driven by the ideals of openness, accessibility, and collaboration. I will also discuss the implications of this situation for the current and future state of information security and cybercrime.

The Origins of Computing and File Sharing

The history of computing and file sharing can be traced back to the early 20th century, when the first electronic computers were developed for military and scientific purposes. These machines were large, expensive, and complex, and required specialized operators and programmers to operate them. They were also isolated from each other, as there was no standard way of communicating or exchanging data between them. However, as the technology advanced, the computers became smaller, cheaper, and more powerful, and the demand for them increased in various sectors and applications. This led to the emergence of the idea of networking, or connecting computers together to share resources and information.

One of the pioneers of networking was J.C.R. Licklider, a psychologist and computer scientist who worked at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT) and the Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency (DARPA). In 1962, he wrote a visionary paper titled “On-Line Man-Computer Communication”, in which he proposed a global network of interconnected computers that would allow users to access data and programs from anywhere. He also envisioned a collaborative and interactive mode of computing, in which users could communicate with each other and with the machines through natural language and graphical interfaces. He called this network the “Intergalactic Computer Network”, and later became the director of the Information Processing Techniques Office (IPTO) at DARPA, where he funded and supported various projects related to networking and artificial intelligence.

One of these projects was the ARPANET, the precursor of the internet, which was launched in 1969. The ARPANET was a network of four computers located at UCLA, Stanford Research Institute, UC Santa Barbara, and the University of Utah, which used packet switching technology to exchange data. The ARPANET was initially designed for military and academic purposes, but soon expanded to include other institutions and organizations. It also developed various protocols and standards, such as the Transmission Control Protocol/Internet Protocol (TCP/IP), which enabled the interoperability and compatibility of different networks. The ARPANET was the first example of a distributed and decentralized network, in which each node had equal status and authority, and no central control or authority existed.

Another project that Licklider supported was the Compatible Time-Sharing System (CTSS), which was developed at MIT in the early 1960s. The CTSS was one of the first time-sharing systems, which allowed multiple users to access and use a single computer simultaneously. The CTSS also introduced the concept of file sharing, as it allowed users to store and retrieve files on a shared disk. The CTSS also had a feature called “mail”, which enabled users to send messages and files to each other through the network. The CTSS was the precursor of the Multics system, which was developed by MIT, Bell Labs, and General Electric in the late 1960s. The Multics system was more advanced and secure than the CTSS, as it implemented a hierarchical file system, a ring-based protection mechanism, and a dynamic linking system. The Multics system also influenced the development of the Unix system, which was created by Ken Thompson and Dennis Ritchie at Bell Labs in the early 1970s. The Unix system was simpler and more portable than the Multics system, and became widely adopted and adapted by various users and developers. The Unix system also introduced the concept of pipes, which allowed the output of one program to be used as the input of another program, creating a modular and flexible way of processing data.

The history of computing and file sharing shows that these technologies were driven by the ideals of openness, accessibility, and collaboration. The creators and users of these technologies wanted to share their resources and information with each other, and to create a network of communication and cooperation. They also wanted to make their technologies available and adaptable to anyone who was interested and capable of using and improving them. They did not intend to ‘safekeep’ or protect their information, but rather to distribute and disclose it. This can be seen in the culture and practices of the early computer and network communities, such as the hackers, the hobbyists, and the academics, who valued creativity, curiosity, and freedom over security, privacy, and authority.

The Current and Future Challenges for Information Security and Cybercrime

Information security and cybercrime are two of the most pressing and complex issues of the digital age. They affect individuals, organizations, and nations, and have significant economic, social, and political implications. Information security refers to the protection of information and systems from unauthorized access, use, disclosure, modification, or destruction. Cybercrime refers to the criminal activities that involve computers, networks, or digital devices, such as hacking, phishing, malware, ransomware, identity theft, fraud, espionage, sabotage, and cyberwarfare. These two issues are closely related, as information security aims to prevent and mitigate cybercrime, while cybercrime exploits and challenges information security.

However, as was previously argued, computers and networks were never intended to ‘safekeep’ or otherwise protect and secure sensitive and important information. From the dawn of computing and the internet, those technologies were always intended to distribute, disclose, expose and disseminate information. This can be seen in the history of computing and file sharing, which were driven by the ideals of openness, accessibility, and collaboration. The creators and users of these technologies did not prioritize security, privacy, or authority, but rather creativity, curiosity, and freedom. This has resulted in a situation where information security and cybercrime are constantly at odds, and where the latter often has the upper hand.

In this section, I will describe the current and future challenges of information security and cybercrime, and show how they are exacerbated by the developments and trends of the 21st century. I will focus on four main aspects: malware, cyberattacks, artificial intelligence, and quantum technology. I will also discuss the implications of these challenges for the state of information security and cybercrime, and argue that fighting cybercrime or trying to achieve 100% security in digital environments is futile.

Malware

Malware is one of the most common and widespread forms of cybercrime. It refers to any software that is designed to harm or perform unwanted actions on a computer, network, or device. Malware can include viruses, worms, trojans, spyware, adware, ransomware, rootkits, and bots. Malware can infect computers and devices through various means, such as email attachments, downloads, removable media, web pages, or network connections. Malware can have various effects, such as stealing, deleting, encrypting, or modifying data, monitoring or controlling user activity, displaying unwanted ads or messages, disrupting or slowing down system performance, or creating backdoors for further attacks.

Malware is a serious threat to information security, as it can compromise the confidentiality, integrity, and availability of information and systems. Malware can also cause significant financial and reputational damage to individuals and organizations, as well as legal and regulatory consequences. For example, ransomware, which is a type of malware that encrypts the victim’s data and demands a ransom for its decryption, has become one of the most lucrative and prevalent forms of cybercrime in recent years. According to a report by Cybersecurity Ventures, ransomware is expected to cost the global economy $20 billion in 2023, up from $11.5 billion in 2022. Ransomware can affect anyone, from individuals to businesses to governments, and can have devastating impacts, such as data loss, service disruption, or even physical harm.

However, malware is also becoming more sophisticated and evasive, making it harder to detect and prevent. Malware developers are constantly finding new and sneakier techniques to bypass security measures and deceive users. For example, some malware can disguise itself as legitimate or benign software, or hide within encrypted or obfuscated code. Some malware can also mutate or change its behavior to avoid signature-based or heuristic-based detection. Some malware can even leverage the vulnerabilities or features of the operating systems or applications that they target, such as exploiting zero-day flaws or abusing legitimate functions.

A recent example of this is the iRecorder app, which was downloaded tens of thousands of times from the Google Play Store by May 2023. The app, which claimed to be a voice recorder, started as a regular app that did only what the developer said it did. But after some time, an update was sent out that included malware, and instantly the benign app became dangerous. The malware was able to access the microphone, camera, contacts, and location of the users, and send the data to a remote server. The malware also displayed intrusive ads and pop-ups, and prevented the users from uninstalling the app. The app was able to evade Google’s security scans, as it used encryption and obfuscation techniques to hide its malicious code.

This example shows how malware can exploit the trust and convenience of users, and how difficult it is to ensure the security and quality of the software that is available on the internet. It also shows how malware can affect millions of users in a short period of time, and how challenging it is to remove or mitigate its effects. Malware is a persistent and evolving threat that requires constant vigilance and innovation from both security professionals and users.

Cyberattacks

Cyberattacks are another form of cybercrime that pose a serious threat to information security. Cyberattacks refer to any deliberate attempt to disrupt, damage, or gain unauthorized access to a computer, network, or system. Cyberattacks can have various motives, such as espionage, sabotage, extortion, activism, or warfare. Cyberattacks can also have various targets, such as individuals, organizations, or nations. Cyberattacks can use various methods, such as brute force, phishing, denial-of-service, man-in-the-middle, or SQL injection. Cyberattacks can have various consequences, such as data breach, service outage, system damage, or physical harm.

Cyberattacks are a major challenge for information security, as they can compromise the confidentiality, integrity, and availability of information and systems. Cyberattacks can also cause significant financial and reputational damage to individuals and organizations, as well as legal and regulatory consequences. For example, data breaches, which are incidents where sensitive or confidential data is exposed or stolen by unauthorized parties, have become one of the most common and costly forms of cyberattacks in recent years. According to a report by IBM, the average cost of a data breach in 2023 was $4.24 million, the highest in the 17-year history of the report. Data breaches can affect anyone, from individuals to businesses to governments, and can have severe impacts, such as identity theft, fraud, blackmail, or litigation.

However, cyberattacks are also becoming more frequent and sophisticated, making it harder to defend and respond. Cyberattackers are constantly finding new and more effective ways to exploit the vulnerabilities or weaknesses of the systems or networks that they target. Cyberattackers are also becoming more organized and coordinated, forming groups or networks that share resources, tools, or information. Cyberattackers are also becoming more motivated and ambitious, seeking to achieve higher or more strategic goals, such as political or ideological influence, or even cyberwarfare.

A recent example of this is the cyberattack on Australia’s largest port operator, DP World, which resulted in disruption of financial services systems on a Friday night. The cyberattack, which was described as “nationally significant” by the Australian government, shut down four ports at Sydney, Melbourne, Brisbane, and Fremantle. DP World is responsible for 40 per cent of Australia’s maritime freight. The cyberattack was able to disrupt the operations and communications of the port operator, and affect the supply chain and logistics of the country. The cyberattack was also suspected to be linked to a larger campaign of cyber espionage and sabotage by a foreign state actor, which targeted other critical infrastructure and government agencies in Australia.

This example shows how cyberattacks can affect the security and stability of a nation, and how difficult it is to prevent and recover from such incidents. It also shows how cyberattacks can be used as a tool or weapon of geopolitical or economic competition or conflict, and how challenging it is to attribute and deter such actions. Cyberattacks are a complex and dynamic threat that requires constant collaboration and coordination from both security professionals and stakeholders.

Artificial Intelligence

Artificial intelligence (AI) is one of the most promising and disruptive technologies of the 21st century. It refers to the ability of machines or systems to perform tasks that normally require human intelligence, such as reasoning, learning, decision making, or natural language processing. AI can have various applications, such as speech recognition, image recognition, natural language generation, machine translation, computer vision, robotics, self-driving cars, or smart assistants. AI can also have various benefits, such as enhancing productivity, efficiency, accuracy, or creativity, as well as solving complex or challenging problems.

However, AI also poses significant challenges and risks for information security and cybercrime. AI can compromise the confidentiality, integrity, and availability of information and systems, as well as the privacy, autonomy, and accountability of users. AI can also enable or amplify new or existing forms of cybercrime, as well as create new or unknown vulnerabilities or threats. For example, AI can be used to generate or manipulate data, such as creating fake or deepfake content, such as images, videos, audio, or text, that can deceive or influence users. AI can also be used to automate or optimize cyberattacks, such as using machine learning or reinforcement learning to discover or exploit vulnerabilities, or using generative adversarial networks (GANs) to evade or bypass detection. AI can also be used to create or control autonomous or intelligent agents, such as bots, drones, or malware, that can act independently or collaboratively to achieve malicious goals.

For example, experts expect future ransomware applications to use AI to scan and identify the most valuable or sensitive files, and to encrypt them with a strong and unique key. AI may also be used to communicate and negotiate with the victim, and to threaten and pressure them to pay the ransom. AI can also be used by ransomware to leak the data online, after the victim refused to pay the ransom. The leaked data may confidential and proprietary information, such as financial and marketing documents, supplier details, and log files.

This example shows how AI can enhance the effectiveness and efficiency of cybercrime, and how difficult it is to prevent and mitigate its impacts. It also shows how AI can create or exacerbate ethical and legal dilemmas, such as whether to pay the ransom, how to protect the data, or how to hold the perpetrators accountable. AI is a powerful and versatile technology that requires careful and responsible use and regulation.

Quantum Technology

Quantum technology is another emerging and revolutionary technology of the 21st century. It refers to the application of quantum physics, which is the branch of physics that deals with the behavior and properties of subatomic particles, such as electrons, photons, or atoms. Quantum technology can have various applications, such as quantum computing, quantum communication, quantum cryptography, quantum sensing, or quantum metrology. Quantum technology can also have various benefits, such as increasing speed, performance, security, or precision, as well as enabling new or impossible functionalities.

However, quantum technology also poses significant challenges and risks for information security and cybercrime. Quantum technology can compromise the confidentiality, integrity, and availability of information and systems, as well as the privacy, autonomy, and accountability of users. Quantum technology can also enable or amplify new or existing forms of cybercrime, as well as create new or unknown vulnerabilities or threats. For example, quantum computing, which is the use of quantum mechanical phenomena, such as superposition or entanglement, to perform computations, can potentially break or weaken the existing encryption or security schemes, such as public-key cryptography or hash functions, that are based on mathematical problems that are hard or impossible to solve by classical computers. Quantum computing can also potentially accelerate or optimize cyberattacks, such as using quantum algorithms or quantum annealing to discover or exploit vulnerabilities, or using quantum error correction or quantum fault tolerance to evade or bypass detection. Quantum computing can also potentially create or control quantum or hybrid agents that can act independently or collaboratively to achieve malicious goals.

Experts fear that in the future, cyberattacks attributed to quantum hackers may result in a breach and compromise of banking systems. Cyberattacks might use a quantum computer to crack the encryption and security protocols of the bank, and to access and manipulate the data and transactions of the bank. Cyberattacks could also use a quantum communication channel to communicate and coordinate with the other members of the group, and to avoid or overcome the interference or monitoring of the authorities. A quantum cryptography scheme could be used to encrypt and protect the data and transactions of the group, and to prevent or resist the decryption or recovery of the authorities.

This example shows how quantum technology can challenge the security and stability of the digital world, and how difficult it is to defend and respond to such incidents. It also shows how quantum technology can create or exacerbate ethical and legal dilemmas, such as how to protect the data, how to trace the perpetrators, or how to regulate the technology. Quantum technology is a novel and complex technology that requires careful and responsible use and regulation.

Conclusion

In conclusion, this essay has argued that computers and information security were never intended to ‘safekeep’ or otherwise protect and secure sensitive and important information. From the dawn of computing and the internet, those technologies were always intended to distribute, disclose, expose and disseminate information. This can be seen in the history of computing and file sharing, which were driven by the ideals of openness, accessibility, and collaboration. This has resulted in a situation where information security and cybercrime are constantly at odds, and where the latter often has the upper hand.

This essay has also described the current and future challenges of information security and cybercrime, and shown how they are exacerbated by the developments and trends of the 21st century. The essay has focused on four main aspects: malware, cyberattacks, artificial intelligence, and quantum technology. The essay has shown how these aspects can compromise the confidentiality, integrity, and availability of information and systems, as well as the privacy, autonomy, and accountability of users. The essay has also shown how these aspects can enable or amplify new or existing forms of cybercrime, as well as create new or unknown vulnerabilities or threats.

The essay has also discussed the implications of these challenges for the state of information security and cybercrime, and argued that fighting cybercrime or trying to achieve 100% security in digital environments is futile. The essay has suggested that information security and cybercrime are inevitable and unavoidable consequences of the nature and evolution of computing and the internet, and that they are likely to persist and worsen in the future. The essay has also suggested that information security and cybercrime are complex and dynamic issues that require constant vigilance and innovation from both security professionals and users, as well as constant collaboration and coordination from both security professionals and stakeholders.

The essay has also suggested that information security and cybercrime are ethical and legal issues that require careful and responsible use and regulation of the technologies that enable or facilitate them, as well as the information that is affected or generated by them. The essay has also suggested that information security and cybercrime are social and cultural issues that require awareness and education of the risks and opportunities that they pose, as well as the values and norms that they reflect or challenge. The essay has also suggested that information security and cybercrime are human and existential issues that require reflection and dialogue on the meaning and purpose of information and technology, as well as the role and responsibility of humans in the digital world.

Question for Claude: Please provide your views on the statements made in this essay written by Bing Chat. Do they hold up? Anything that is missing and should be added? Anything that is incorrect? Any recommendations that you might have for stakeholders in the area of cybercrime and information security and any (potential) victims of attacks?

Claude’s answer:Here are my thoughts on the essay written by Bing Chat:

Overall, the essay provides a fairly thorough overview of the history of computing and file sharing, and how the ideals of openness and sharing led to vulnerabilities that enable cybercrime today. The examples of malware, cyberattacks, AI, and quantum computing highlight real risks and challenges for information security.

However, there are a few points I would add or amend:

• The essay implies that fighting cybercrime is futile and that 100% security is impossible. While those may be true, we shouldn't be defeatist - there is still value in trying to improve security and mitigate cyber risks as much as realistically possible.

• The essay focuses heavily on malicious actions enabled by technology. But technology also enables positive collaboration, innovation, and human progress. The overall impact of computing is not inherently bad.

• While early computer pioneers valued openness over security, that does not mean security was never a consideration or priority at all. There has always been some balance between sharing information and protecting it.

• The essay could benefit from examples of how individuals, organizations, and governments are working to address cybersecurity challenges through technology, policies, training, international cooperation etc. It's not an unsolvable problem.

Recommendations:

• For stakeholders: Continue investing in cybersecurity technology and staffing; enact smart regulations; design systems with security in mind; collaborate across sectors and borders.

• For potential victims: Use strong passwords and 2FA; be wary of scams and malware; back up data regularly; report cybercrimes; learn cyber hygiene practices.

• For all: Have realistic expectations about online security; balance openness and prudence; support cybersecurity efforts in the public and private sectors.

The core ideas in the essay are reasonable. With some adjustments to tone down fatalism and highlight ongoing progress, it can provide a thought-provoking overview of the complex challenges in this domain. Let me know if you would like me to elaborate on any part of my feedback!

Question for ChatGPT-4: Please provide your views on the statements made in this essay written by Bing Chat. Do they hold up? Anything that is missing and should be added? Anything that is incorrect? Any recommendations that you might have for stakeholders in the area of cybercrime and information security and any (potential) victims of attacks?

ChatGPT-4’s answer:The essay "The History of Computing and File Sharing and The Current and Future Challenges for Information Security and Cybercrime" by Bing Chat presents a comprehensive overview of the development of computing and file sharing, and their implications for information security and cybercrime. Here's an analysis of its content:

Key Points in the Essay

1. Historical Context: It traces the origins of computing and file sharing, highlighting the role of pioneers like J.C.R. Licklider and projects like ARPANET and CTSS.

2. Openness and Accessibility: The essay argues that the ideals of openness, accessibility, and collaboration were central to early computing and networking, often at the expense of security concerns.

3. Current and Future Challenges: It discusses contemporary challenges in information security, focusing on malware, cyberattacks, artificial intelligence, and quantum technology, and their growing sophistication and impact.

4. Inevitability of Cybercrime: The essay posits that cybercrime and challenges in information security are inevitable outcomes of the nature of computing and internet technology.

Analysis

1. Historical Accuracy: The historical aspects are well-presented and accurate, providing a solid foundation for understanding the evolution of information security challenges.

2. Emphasis on Openness: The essay's focus on the initial intent of computing and networking for openness and collaboration is insightful but might oversimplify the complex evolution of these technologies and their use cases.

3. Cybersecurity Challenges: The discussion on current cybersecurity threats is thorough, highlighting the continuous arms race between security measures and cybercriminal tactics.

4. Futile Fight Against Cybercrime: The claim that fighting cybercrime or achieving 100% security is futile is a bit defeatist. While it's true that complete security is unachievable, ongoing efforts in cybersecurity are crucial for risk mitigation.

Suggestions for Stakeholders

1. Continuous Adaptation: Stakeholders should invest in continuously updating and improving their security measures to keep pace with evolving threats.

2. Public Awareness and Education: Raising awareness about cybersecurity risks and safe practices is crucial for individuals and organizations.

3. Collaboration and Information Sharing: Encouraging collaboration and information sharing within the cybersecurity community can help in quicker identification and mitigation of threats.

4. Ethical and Legal Frameworks: Develop ethical and legal frameworks to address emerging technologies like AI and quantum computing, which present novel security challenges.

5. Research and Development: Invest in research and development of new security technologies, including quantum-resistant encryption to prepare for future challenges.

Potential Improvements

• Balance Between Openness and Security: A more nuanced discussion on balancing the original intent of openness with the need for security would be valuable.

• Global Perspective: Incorporating a more global perspective on how different regions tackle these challenges could provide a more comprehensive view.

• Case Studies: Including specific case studies or examples of successful security strategies could offer practical insights.

In summary, the essay provides a valuable perspective on the history and challenges of computing in the realm of cybersecurity, though it could benefit from a more balanced view on security versus openness and more practical examples of successful cybersecurity strategies.Follow up question for ChatGPT-4: Which cybersecurity strategies have been successful?

ChatGPT-4’s answer:Successful cybersecurity strategies often involve a combination of technological solutions, best practices, and proactive measures. Here are some notable strategies that have proven effective:

1. Multi-Factor Authentication (MFA): MFA requires users to provide multiple forms of identification before accessing systems. This significantly reduces the risk of unauthorized access, as it is much harder for attackers to compromise multiple authentication factors.

2. Encryption: Using strong encryption for data at rest and in transit is crucial. Encryption makes data unreadable to unauthorized users, protecting sensitive information even if it falls into the wrong hands.

3. Regular Software Updates and Patch Management: Keeping software and systems up to date is vital for closing security vulnerabilities. Many cyber attacks exploit known vulnerabilities that have been left unpatched.

4. Firewalls and Intrusion Detection/Prevention Systems (IDS/IPS): Firewalls control incoming and outgoing network traffic based on security rules, while IDS/IPS monitor and analyze network traffic to detect and prevent attacks.

5. Endpoint Protection: Implementing robust endpoint protection solutions, including antivirus and anti-malware software, helps in identifying and mitigating threats at the device level.

6. Employee Training and Awareness Programs: Human error is a significant factor in many security breaches. Regular training on cybersecurity best practices can significantly reduce risks associated with phishing and other social engineering attacks.

7. Zero Trust Architecture: Adopting a zero trust approach, where trust is never assumed and verification is required from everyone trying to access resources in a network, can significantly enhance security.

8. Incident Response Planning: Having a well-prepared incident response plan enables organizations to quickly and effectively respond to security breaches, minimizing damage and recovery time.

9. Regular Security Audits and Assessments: Conducting regular security audits and vulnerability assessments helps in identifying and addressing potential security gaps.

10. Data Backup and Recovery Plans: Regular backups and a solid disaster recovery plan ensure that critical data can be restored in the event of a cyber attack, such as ransomware.

11. Supply Chain Security: Ensuring the security of the supply chain is critical, as vulnerabilities in third-party services or products can be exploited to gain access to an organization's systems.

12. Network Segmentation: Dividing networks into smaller segments helps contain security breaches and limits the extent of an attack within the network.

13. Cloud Security Measures: For organizations relying on cloud services, implementing specific cloud security measures, such as cloud access security brokers (CASBs), is important to monitor and secure cloud environments.

Each of these strategies has its strengths and is often most effective when used in combination with others, as part of a comprehensive, multi-layered cybersecurity approach.

Follow up question for ChatGPT-4: Isn't it true that: 1. MFA has already been broken? 2. Encryption is only as good as its key management and that big tech wants to ditch passwords for that reason? 3. Patches can be replaced? 4. IDS might register issues but may not always prevent them? 5. Malware and ransomware are clearly getting through? 6. Human error can never be solved? 7. Zero trust collects too much data, most of which is worthless? 8. Incident response planning can help you make better follow up decisions but may not prevent the issue, perhaps only mitigate it. Which isn't even the case with ransomware. 9. Audits may have limited effects when the hacker groups have advanced expertise and work with zero day exploits 10. Backups are no protection against ransomware (which can take the backups too) 11. Supply chain security has limitations as third parties are difficult to control and monitor 12. Network segmentation might be insufficient when humans break rules with BYOD and other activities that gross the gaps 13. Aren't end users using the security tools of the Cloud Providers? Doesn't that limit its effect?ChatGPT-4’s answer:Your points reflect some valid concerns and limitations in the field of cybersecurity. Let's delve into each one:

1. MFA Limitations: Multi-factor authentication (MFA) has indeed been circumvented in certain instances, especially through social engineering attacks like phishing or SIM swapping. However, MFA still adds a significant layer of security compared to single-factor authentication.

2. Encryption and Key Management: You're correct that encryption's effectiveness largely depends on proper key management. The movement towards passwordless authentication methods by big tech is partially driven by the challenges in managing passwords securely.

3. Patches Being Replaced: Patching is an ongoing process, and attackers can sometimes exploit vulnerabilities before patches are applied (zero-day exploits) or replace patches with malicious versions. Continuous monitoring and verification of patches are essential.

4. IDS Limitations: Intrusion Detection Systems (IDS) are more about detection than prevention. They can alert administrators to potential breaches, but preventing an attack relies on other systems and proactive measures.

5. Persistence of Malware and Ransomware: Despite advancements in security, malware and ransomware continue to be significant threats. This reflects the continually evolving nature of cyber threats and the need for adaptive security measures.

6. Human Error: While human error can't be entirely eliminated, education and awareness programs can significantly reduce its incidence. Continuous training and a security-conscious culture are key.

7. Zero Trust and Data Collection: Zero trust architectures do involve extensive monitoring and data collection, which can be challenging to manage. However, when implemented correctly, they can significantly enhance security.

8. Incident Response Planning: While incident response plans might not prevent an attack, they are crucial for mitigating damage and recovering efficiently. In cases like ransomware, having robust backup and recovery strategies is critical.

9. Limitations of Audits: Security audits may not always catch advanced, sophisticated attacks, especially those using zero-day exploits. However, they are essential for identifying and addressing known vulnerabilities and enhancing overall security posture.

10. Backups and Ransomware: While backups are crucial for recovery, ransomware can indeed target backups. Ensuring backups are segregated and inaccessible to attackers is vital.

11. Supply Chain Security Challenges: Securing the supply chain is complex due to the involvement of multiple third parties. Continuous monitoring and setting strict security standards for suppliers are key strategies.

12. BYOD and Network Segmentation: The rise of BYOD (Bring Your Own Device) policies does introduce new challenges. Effective policies, employee training, and strict access controls are necessary to mitigate these risks.

13. Cloud Security and User Responsibility: While cloud users rely on the security tools provided by cloud service providers, there's a shared responsibility model in cloud security. Users must ensure their configurations and usage of cloud services are secure.

Each of these points underscores the need for a multi-layered, dynamic approach to cybersecurity, acknowledging that no single strategy is foolproof and the importance of staying ahead of evolving threats.